Definition: Interview is verbal questioning. In research, Lindzey Gardner has defined interview as “a two-person conversation, initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by him on the content specified by the research objectives of description and explanation”.
Functions of interview:
Two major functions of the interview techniques are described as under:
• Description
• Exploration
Description: The information received from the respondent provides insight into the nature of social reality. Since the interviewer spends some time with the respondents, he can understand their feelings and attitudes more clearly, and seek additional information wherever necessary and make information meaningful for him.
Exploration: Interview provides insight into unexplored dimensions of the problem.
Characteristics of interview: Black and Champion have pointed out the following characteristics of an interview:
• Personal communication.
• Equal status: The status of the interviewer and the interviewee is equal.
• Instant response.
• Temporary relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee.
• Considerable flexibility in the format of the interview.
Types of interviews:
Unstructured: There are no specifications in the wording of the questions or the order of the questions. The interviewer forms questions as and when required. The structure of the interview is flexible.
Structured: Is based on the structured interview-guide which is little different from the questionnaire. It is a set of specific points and definite questions prepared by the interviewer.
Standardized: In standardized interviews, answer to each question is standardized as it is determined by a set of response categories given for this purpose. The respondents are expected to choose one of the given options as the answer.
Unstandardized: Is one in which the responses are left open to the respondent. This is used mainly in qualitative research.
Individual: Where the interviewer interviews only one respondent at a time.
Group interview: More than one respondent are interviewed simultaneously. The group can be small, say, of two individual (e.g., husband and wife, or two co-workers in a factory) or large, say, of 10 to 20 persons (say students in a class).
Self-administered: The respondent is supplied a list of questions along with instructions for writing answers in the appropriate place on the interview form.
Other-administered: The interviewer himself writes answers to questions on the response sheet.
Unique: Is one which the interviewer collects entire information in one interview.
Panel interviews: The interviewer collects information from the same group of respondents two or more times at regular intervals. If different respondents are involved in various stages for asking the same question, it is called Trend Study.
Soft interview: Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any pressure on them.
Hard interview: Here, the interview resembles a police interrogation. The interviewer questions the validity and completeness of the answers obtained, often warning the respondents not to lie and forcing them to give an answer when they hesitate.
Personal interviews: There is face to face contact between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Non-personal interviews: No face-to-face contact, but the information is collected through telephone, computer or some other medium.
Conditions for a successful interview: Collecting data through the interview technique may be easy, yet its adequacy, reliability and validity pose important problems. Interviewers differ in interest and skill; respondents differ in ability and motivation. Gardner has pointed out three conditions for successful interviewing:
• Accessibility
• Understanding
• Motivations
Accessibility: For giving information to the interviewer, the respondent must have access to the information.
Understanding: The respondent sometimes is not able to understand what is expected of him. Unless he understands the significance of the research, the concepts and terms used, the nature of answers which the interviewer expects from him, his answers might be out-of-track.
Motivation: The respondent needs to be motivated not only for giving information but also giving accurate information. The fear of consequences, being suspicious about the interviewer, and dislike of the subject are some of the factors which decrease the level of respondents’ motivation. The interviewer, therefore, has to try to reduce the effect of these factors.
Sunday, November 21, 2010
Research Process: Steps Involved
Horton and Hunt (1984:10) have pointed out eight steps in scientific research or scientific method of investigation:
1. Define/select the problem.
2. Review literature.
3. Formulate the hypotheses.
4. Plan the research design.
5. Collect the data.
6. Analyse the data.
7. Draw conclusion.
8. Replicate the study (when necessary).
1. Define/select the problem:
Probably the most common sources of research ideas are the experience of practical problems in the field. Many researchers are directly engaged in social, health, or human service program implementation and come up with their ideas based on what they see happening around them.
Another source of research ideas is the literature in one’s specific field. Many researchers get the ideas for research by reading the literature and thinking of ways to extend or refine previous research.
Finally, some researches simply think of their research topic on their own. The ideas they come up with are influenced by their background, culture, education, and experience.
Once a basic research idea has been chosen, the next step is to ensure that the topic has merit.
2. Review literature:
Researchers who conduct studies under the guidelines of scientific research never begin a research project without first consulting available literature to learn what has been done, how it was done, and what results were generated.
It not only allows the researchers to learn from previous research but also save time, effort, and money.
Before attempting any project, researchers should ask these questions:
• What type of research has been done in the area?
• What has been found in the previous studies?
• What suggestions do other researchers make for further study?
• What has not been investigated?
• What research methods were used in previous studies?
3. Formulate the hypotheses:
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome which can be empirically verified.
Ex: Non-working women enjoy lower social status than working women.
Here the variables are: woman’s work and social status.
Aggression is caused due to frustration.
4. Plan the Research Design:
Research design is the detailed strategy to conduct a research. It plans as to:
What is to be observed
How is to be observed
When/where is to be observed
Why is to be observed
How to record observations
How to analyze/interpret observations
How to generalize
William Zikmund has described research design as “a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information”.
5. Collect the data:
Data for research purposes can be divided into two types:
1. Primary
2. Secondary
Primary: The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
Secondary: The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
Collection of primary data: Primary data can be collected either through experiment or survey.
If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
In the case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
• By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes or respondents. This method is an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. This method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
• Through personal interviews
• Through telephone interviews
• By mailing of questionnaires: Are a set of questions mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same.
• Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents.
• Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to elicit unconscious as also other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and motivations.
• Content analysis: Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.
Collection of secondary data: Secondary data can be either published data or unpublished data.
Published data can be collected from:
• Various publications of central, state and local govts.
• Various publications of foreign govt. and international bodies.
• Technical and trade journals.
• Books, magazines and newspapers.
• Reports and publications of various associations.
• Previous research reports.
• Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.
The sources of unpublished data may be:
• Diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies.
• Scholars, research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organizations.
6. Analyse the data:
In this stage, the researcher analyses the data, prepares tables, and interprets the facts.
After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into meaningful statement; includes data processing, data analysis, and data interpretation and presentation.
Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of manipulation) could be manual or electronic. It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding, computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
7. Draw conclusion:
Logical conclusions are drawn based on the analysis of data and suggestions for future research are given.
8. Replicate the study: The above research project is replicated in different places, if we want to generalise the findings of the research.
1. Define/select the problem.
2. Review literature.
3. Formulate the hypotheses.
4. Plan the research design.
5. Collect the data.
6. Analyse the data.
7. Draw conclusion.
8. Replicate the study (when necessary).
1. Define/select the problem:
Probably the most common sources of research ideas are the experience of practical problems in the field. Many researchers are directly engaged in social, health, or human service program implementation and come up with their ideas based on what they see happening around them.
Another source of research ideas is the literature in one’s specific field. Many researchers get the ideas for research by reading the literature and thinking of ways to extend or refine previous research.
Finally, some researches simply think of their research topic on their own. The ideas they come up with are influenced by their background, culture, education, and experience.
Once a basic research idea has been chosen, the next step is to ensure that the topic has merit.
2. Review literature:
Researchers who conduct studies under the guidelines of scientific research never begin a research project without first consulting available literature to learn what has been done, how it was done, and what results were generated.
It not only allows the researchers to learn from previous research but also save time, effort, and money.
Before attempting any project, researchers should ask these questions:
• What type of research has been done in the area?
• What has been found in the previous studies?
• What suggestions do other researchers make for further study?
• What has not been investigated?
• What research methods were used in previous studies?
3. Formulate the hypotheses:
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome which can be empirically verified.
Ex: Non-working women enjoy lower social status than working women.
Here the variables are: woman’s work and social status.
Aggression is caused due to frustration.
4. Plan the Research Design:
Research design is the detailed strategy to conduct a research. It plans as to:
What is to be observed
How is to be observed
When/where is to be observed
Why is to be observed
How to record observations
How to analyze/interpret observations
How to generalize
William Zikmund has described research design as “a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information”.
5. Collect the data:
Data for research purposes can be divided into two types:
1. Primary
2. Secondary
Primary: The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
Secondary: The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
Collection of primary data: Primary data can be collected either through experiment or survey.
If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
In the case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
• By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes or respondents. This method is an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. This method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
• Through personal interviews
• Through telephone interviews
• By mailing of questionnaires: Are a set of questions mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same.
• Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents.
• Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to elicit unconscious as also other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and motivations.
• Content analysis: Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.
Collection of secondary data: Secondary data can be either published data or unpublished data.
Published data can be collected from:
• Various publications of central, state and local govts.
• Various publications of foreign govt. and international bodies.
• Technical and trade journals.
• Books, magazines and newspapers.
• Reports and publications of various associations.
• Previous research reports.
• Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.
The sources of unpublished data may be:
• Diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies.
• Scholars, research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organizations.
6. Analyse the data:
In this stage, the researcher analyses the data, prepares tables, and interprets the facts.
After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into meaningful statement; includes data processing, data analysis, and data interpretation and presentation.
Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of manipulation) could be manual or electronic. It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding, computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
7. Draw conclusion:
Logical conclusions are drawn based on the analysis of data and suggestions for future research are given.
8. Replicate the study: The above research project is replicated in different places, if we want to generalise the findings of the research.
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