In-text citation and creating Reference List (Bibliography)

Friends, there are two parts to a reference citation. First, there is the way we cite the item in the text when we are discussing it. Second, there is the way we list the complete reference in the reference section in the end of the report.
For citing references in the text, four referencing systems are in use namely:

1. The short-title system
2. The author-date system (APA system)
3. The author-number system
4. The reference by number system

For writing references in the end or writing a bibliography, serveral well established systems are in use. In social science, some of the commonly used ones are:

1. The Harvard system
2. The American Psychological Association (APA) system
3. The American Medical Association (AMA) system
4. The McGraw-Hill system
5. The Modern Language Association (MLA) system
6. The footnote system

The link to APA system has been given beow for study:
http://library.curtin.edu.au/research_and_information_skills/referencing/apa.pdf

Processing of data--editing, coding, classification and tabulation

After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into meaningful statement; includes data processing, data analysis, and data interpretation and presentation.

Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of manipulation) could be manual or electronic. It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding, computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.

Editing data:

Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity. Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some questions may be left unanswered. Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting daily/monthly income in annual income and so on. The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.

Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors are modified. Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and impossible answer. “How much red chilies do you use in a month” The answer is written as “4 kilos”. Can a family of three members use four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be “0.4 kilo”.

Care should be taken in editing (re-arranging) answers to open-ended questions. Example: Sometimes “don’t know” answer is edited as “no response”. This is wrong. “Don’t know” means that the respondent is not sure and is in a double mind about his reaction or considers the questions personal and does not want to answer it. “No response” means that the respondent is not familiar with the situation/object/event/individual about which he is asked.

Coding of data:

Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data analysis. Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer card. Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook. The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.

Now-a-days, codes are assigned before going to the field while constructing the questionnaire/schedule. Pose data collection; pre-coded items are fed to the computer for processing and analysis. For open-ended questions, however, post-coding is necessary. In such cases, all answers to open-ended questions are placed in categories and each category is assigned a code.

Manual processing is employed when qualitative methods are used or when in quantitative studies, a small sample is used, or when the questionnaire/schedule has a large number of open-ended questions, or when accessibility to computers is difficult or inappropriate. However, coding is done in manual processing also.

Data classification/distribution:

Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a particular variable. There are four types of distributions:

1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions

Frequency distribution:

In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This distribution appears in two forms:

Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g., distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value (e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3 scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)

Percentage distribution:

It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in percentages. For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.

Cumulative distribution:

It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or equal to a particular reference value.

Statistical data distribution:

In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found out of a sample of respondents. Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose. Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched around it. Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of variation?

Tabulation of data:

After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of statistical analysis.

Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers. For a small study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on punched cards. But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand tabulation will be inappropriate and time consuming.

Usefulness of tables:

Tables are useful to the researchers and the readers in three ways:

1. The present an overall view of findings in a simpler way.
2. They identify trends.
3. They display relationships in a comparable way between parts of the findings.
By convention, the dependent variable is presented in the rows and the independent variable in the columns.

Observation method of primary data collection

Definition:

It is watching other persons’ behaviour as it actually happens without controlling it.

Example: Watching the life of street-children provides a detailed description of their social life.

Lindzey Gardner (1975) has defined it as “selection, provocation, recording and encoding of that set of behaviour and settings concerning organisms ‘in situ’ (naturalistic settings or familiar surroundings) which are consistent with empirical aims”.

The keywords of the above definition are:


Selection: There is a focus in observation and also editing before, during and after the observations are made.

Provocation: Though observers do not destroy natural settings but they can make subtle changes in natural settings which increases clarity.

Recording: The observed incidents/events are recorded for subsequent analysis.

Encoding: Simplification of records.

What is observed in observation method?

According to Zikmund (1988), six kinds of contents/dimensions can be observed in observation method. These are:

Physical actions: Pattern of working, watching TV etc.
Verbal behaviour: Conversations between students, workers etc.
Expressive behaviour: Tone of voice, facial expressions etc.
Spatial relations: Physical distance between workers in a factory, two students in conversation etc.
Temporal patterns: Amount of time spent in performing rituals, shopping, conversation etc.
Verbal records: Content of slogan shouted, scolding etc.

Characteristics of observation:

Lofland has said that this method is more appropriate for studying lifestyles or sub-cultures, practices, episodes, encounters, relationships, groups, organizations, settlements, and roles.

The following are the characteristics of observation among others:

1. Behaviour is observed in natural surroundings.
2. It enables understanding significant events affecting social relations of the participants.
3. It determines reality from the viewpoint of the observed person/Researcher.
4. It avoids manipulations in the independent variables.
5. Recording of data is not selective.

Purpose of observation:

The major purposes of observation as described by Black and Champion are as under:

1. To capture human conduct as it actually happens. In other methods, we get a static comprehension of people’s activity. In actual situation, they sometimes modify their views, sometimes contradict themselves, and sometimes are so swayed away by the situation that they react differently altogether. Ex: Tone of voice, facial expressions and content of slogans by the demonstrators.

2. To provide more graphic description of social life than can be acquired in other ways. Example: The graphic details of behaviour of women when they are physically assaulted by their husbands can only be got by observation method.

3. To explore important events and situations. By being present on the scene, issues that might otherwise be overlooked are examined more carefully. Example: Visiting office soon after the office hours and finding that the married men and single women are working overtime whereas single men and married women had gone home.

4. It can be used as a tool of collecting information in situations where methods other than observation cannot prove to be useful. Example: Workers’ behaviour during a strike.

Process of observation:

Since observation involves sensitive human interactions, it cannot be reduced to a simple set of techniques. Yet some scholars have tried to point out the path that the observer in the fieldwork has to follow:
Williamson, et al (1977) have pointed out the following four stages through which an observer has to pass:

1. Choosing a research site
2. Gaining access in setting and taking role
3. Jotting down notes
4. Formulating analysis

Choosing a research site:

After deciding the problem or the phenomenon of interest, the researcher can pinpoint a manageable area for observation and data collection.

Gaining access in setting and taking role:

Once the site for the study is chosen, the observer faces the problem of obtaining entry in the setting. This is possible by spelling out the motives of the study and seeking permission from the administrator or by concealing the motive and seeking the help of a known person in the situation. In some settings, however, the entry is not restricted. It is free and open to anyone who might choose to be there.

Raymond Gold (1969) has pointed out four basic roles which a fieldworker (observer) can assume:

Complete observer: Here, the observer remains disguised and detached from the situation studied.

Observer as participant: The observer is completely open about his research objectives and he approaches people on that basis.

Participant as observer: Here, the observer gets involved effectively or conceals his role as researcher.

Complete participant: The observer becomes fully involved both behaviourally and emotionally.

After gaining access and taking up role, the success or failure of getting information by the observer would depend upon the trust or the mistrust he is able to get from the people who are to be observed.

Jotting down notes: Taking accurate and detailed notes objectivity is very crucial. Since the researchers initially may not know which data would be ultimately useful and important, he should take down all details to be sorted out later on. The notes should record the description of the setting under investigation, description of subjects, and description of conversations with persons and among persons, and any fact or relevance or of unusual importance. This should be followed by tentative explanations of things observed.

Formulating analysis: It is possible that two researchers studying/observing same situation may give two different types of analyses, particularly if the analysis is qualitative. One might focus on one type of social dimensions and other on different types altogether. One analysis may challenge the existing theoretical view of social life while other may support it. Classifying the initial data one the basis of accepted concepts and categories (like status, role, soicialisation, mobility, structure and so on.) may provide a core basis but later on new conceptual categories may be developed.

Sarantakos (1998) has pointed out the following six steps in the observation:

Selection of the topic: This refers to the issue to be studied though observation. It may be marital conflict, domestic violence, riot, caste panchayat meeting in a village, child labourers in a glass factory among others.

Formulation of the topic: This involves fixing of categories to be observed and pointing out the situations in which cases are to be observed. Example: The life of child labourers in glass factories: A study in X factory of Kanpur.

Research design: This determines identification of subjects to be observed, preparing observation schedule, if any, and arranging entry in situations to be observed.

Collection of data: This involves familiarization with the setting, observation and recording.

Analysis of data: In this stage, the researcher analyses the data, prepares tables, and interprets the facts.

Report writing: This involves writing of the report for submission to the sponsoring agency or for publication.

Advantages of observation:

Bailey (1998: 249-50) has pointed out four advantages of observation:

Superior in data collection on non-verbal behaviour: When a person’s opinion on a particular issue is to be assessed, survey method is definitely more useful, but when the non-verbal behaviour is to be discovered or when memory failure of the respondent is possible, observation will be more functional.

Intimate and informal relationship: Since the observer often lives with the subjects for an extended period of time, the relationship between them is often more intimate and more informal than in a survey in which the interviewer meets the respondents for 30-40 minutes on a very formal basis.

Natural environment: The behaviour being observed in a natural environment will not cause any bias. Observation will neither be artificial nor restrictive.

Longitudinal analysis: In observation, the researcher is able to conduct his study over a much longer period than in the survey.

Sarantakos has mentioned the following advantages of observation among others:

1. It is less complicated and less time-consuming.
2. It offers data when respondents are unable or unwilling to cooperate for giving information.
3. It allows collection of wide range of information.

Limitations of observation:

According to Bailey (1982:250-52), the disadvantages in observation technique are:

Lack of control: In natural setting, control over variables is not possible that affect the data.

Difficulties of quantification: The data collected through observation cannot be quantified. In communal riots, looting, arson, killing may be observed but it cannot be quantified what type of people indulged in what? It is difficult to categorise in-depth emotional and humanistic data.

Small sample size: Observational studies use a smaller sample than survey studies.

Gaining entry: Many times the observer has difficulties in receiving approval for the study. It is not always easy to observe the functioning of an organization or institution without obtaining permission from the administrator. In such cases, he may not record observations then and there but may write notes at night.

Lack of anonymity/studying sensitive issues: In observational studies it is difficult to maintain the respondent’s anonymity.

Limited study: All aspects of the problems cannot be studied simultaneously. The observation technique studies only limited issues. Similarly, internal attitudes and opinions cannot be studied.

(This has been compiled by inputs from various books written by C.R. Kothari, Wimmer & Dominique, Kerlinger, Ram Ahuja, Trochim, Ranjit Kumar among others.)

Questionnaire of Ms. Ankita Dasgupta, a 5th semester student of LLDIMS, Mandi; for the research project, " Preference of Moviegoers in South Delhi."

The objectives of the research project are:
1. To find out the factors those influence the moviegoers the most.
2. To discover what media or sources do they rely on to make their choice (critic’s review, trailers among others.)
3. To investigate how effective are the current methods of publicity in influencing their choice.

The questionnaire is given below:

Questionnaire

This questionnaire is a method to collect primary data for the research project, Preference of Moviegoers in South Delhi. The research is being conducted for partial fulfillment of the requirements for Bachelor degree in Journalism and Mass Communications from G.G.S.I.P.University, New Delhi.

Name:
Age:
Address:
Educational qualification:
Occupation:

Please choose one response (give a tick mark) from the following options for each question unless instructed otherwise.

Q1) Do you like watching movies?

. Yes
. No

Q2) How often do you go to the theater to watch movies?


. I watch every new release
. 2-3 times a month
. Every weekend
. Rarely

Q3) What kind of movies do you prefer?

. Action
. Drama
. Romance/Comedy
. Horror
. Other (please write)____________________________________ ____________________________________________________
Q4) What are the factors that draw you to the theater?

. Star cast
. Director
. Story/Reviews
. Other (please write)________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Q5) What do you have to say about people watching a movie in theater more than once because of their favorite stars despite the movie getting bad reviews.
(please write below)
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

Q6) Does a director's previous work affect your choice?

. Yes
. No
. May be

Q7) On what basis do you decide a movie to watch?

. Trailers
. Critics Review
. Word of Mouth review from people you know
. Other (please write)_________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Q8) Does the appearance of celebrities, of new movie releases, on various television shows for promotion have an impact on your choice?

. Yes
. No
. Sometimes

Q9) Do chat shows, interviews and special shows on a particular movie increase your curiosity about the movie (e.g. chat shows on MTV and Channel V on various movies)?
. Yes
. No
. Maybe

Q10) Are your choices affected by the banners and posters outside?
. Yes
. No
. Sometimes

Q 11) Will you go to the theaters to watch a movie if a celebrity (star cast) personally appears at the opening of the movie?
. Yes
. No
. Only if it’s my favorite movie star


I, do hereby declare that all my responses are true to the best of my knowledge and belief.


Date:

Place:


(Signature of respondent)

TYPES OF SAMPLING

There are basically two types of sampling:

· Probability
· Non-probability

Probability sampling: Is one in which every unit of the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample. This remains the primary method for selecting large, representative samples for social science and business researches.

Advantages:

· High degree of representativeness
Disadvantages:

· The method is expensive and time consuming.
· Relatively complicated since it requires a large sample size and units selected are usually largely scattered.

Probability sampling is divided into the following different types:

Simple random
Stratified random
Systematic (interval)
Cluster
Multi-stage

1. Simple random: In this sampling the sampling units are selected randomly by one of the number of methods given below:

Lottery
Picking blind folded
Tippet’s table method or random numbers method
By first letter

Advantages:
Simplest and easiest to conduct
Sampling error is less
The researcher does not need to know about the exact composition of the population.

Disadvantages:

Researcher’s knowledge on population is not used.
Not possible if the researcher wants to break it in different sub-groups.
Produces greater errors in results than other methods.




2. Stratified random: When the population is divided into different strata or sub-groups and sample units are taken in a simple random method from each group. The final sample contains sample units from all these strata.

Stratified random sampling is of two types:

Proportionate
Disproportionate

Proportionate: When the sample units are chosen proportionate to the size of the strata.

Disproportionate: When it is not proportionate to the size of th strata.

Advantages of stratified sampling:

1.All groups of the population can be proportionately represented.
2. Comparison can be made among different sub-categories.
3. More precise than simple random sampling.

Disadvantages of stratified sampling:

. More efforts required than simple random sampling.
. The population has to be appreciably large to get statistically meaningful results.

3. Systematic (interval): The sampling is obtained by collecting of elements by drawing every nth person from a pre-determined list of persons. It is randomly selecting the first respondent and then every nth person after that. The number ‘n’ is called the sampling interval.

Advantages:

. It is easy, simple to use and a rapid method.
. Mistakes in drawing elements are relatively unimportant.

Disadvantages:

. It ignores all persons between two nth numbers paving the way of over/under representation of several groups.
. As each element has no chance of being selected, it is often not considered probability sampling by some.

4. Cluster: This sampling implies dividing population into clusters and drawing random sample either from all clusters or selected clusters.
Initial clusters are called primary sampling units; clusters within the secondary clusters are called multi-stage clusters. For example, dividing one city into various wards, each ward into areas, each area into neighborhood and each neighborhood into lanes and so on.

Advantages:

. Much easier when large population or large geographical area is studied.
. Less costly
. Respondents can be easily replaced.
. Characteristics of clusters can be estimated.
. Administratively simple to handle.
. Handy when it is inconvenient or unethical to randomly select individuals.

Disadvantages:

. Each cluster may not be of equal size, so comparison would no be on equal basis.
. Greater sampling error.
. Lacks representation

5. Multi-stage: In this method, sampling is selected in various stages but only the last sample of subjects is studied.

For example: For studying the panchayat system in villages, India is divided into zones = North, South, East and West. One state is selected from each zone say Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Assam and Gujrat. One district will be selected from each state. One block is selected from each district, and three villages are selected from each block. Ultimately we will have 12 villages from all over India from which we can take respondents for the final sample.

Advantages:

. More representative
. Saves cost
. Complete listing of population is not necessary.

Non-Probability sampling: Mass media researchers frequently use non-probability sampling.
This is the kind of sampling where all sampling units don’t have the equal chance of selection.

Types: The various types of non-probability sampling are given below:

Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Volunteer sampling

Convenience/Available sampling: This is known as accidental or haphazard sampling. This is a collection of readily accessible subjects for study.

Example: During election times, media personnel often present man-on-the-street interviews that are presumed to reflect public opinion.

Convenience sampling is best suited for exploratory research which becomes the base for further investigations.

Advantages:

. Quick and economical

Disadvantages:

It may be biased as:
. The respondents may have a vested interests to serve in co-operating with the interviewer.
. Respondents may be those who are vocal or want to brag.

Purposive sampling: It is also known as judgmental sampling. It includes subjects or elements selected for specific characteristics or qualities and eliminates those who fail to meet those criteria.

Example: Often used in advertising studies where researchers select the subjects who use a particular type of product and ask them to compare it with a new product.

Disadvantages:

. Not representative in nature.

Quota sampling: Subjects are selected to a predetermined or known percentage/quota.

Example: A researcher interested to find out how DTH service takers are different from non-DTH service takers in their use of TV may know that 10% of a particular population avail DTH services. The sample the researcher selects, therefore, would be composed of 10% of DTH service takers and 90% of non-DTH service takers.

Advantages:

. Less costly than other techniques.
. Does not require sampling frame.
. Relatively effective and can be completed in a very short time.

Disadvantages:
. It might not be representative.
. It might have interviewer’s bias in selection.
. Strict control of fieldwork is difficult (instead of 25 only 20 respondents may be available.)

Snowball sampling: In this technique, the researcher begins the research with a few respondents who are known and available to him. Subsequently, the respondents give other names who meet the criteria of research, who in turn give more names. This process is continued until adequate numbers of persons are interviewed or until no more respondents are discovered.

Example: A research on the sexual behaviour of homosexuals in a conservative society.

This method is employed when the target population is unknown or when it is difficult to approach the respondents in any other way.

Advantages:

. Reduced sample size
. Reduced cost

Disadvantages:

A person known to someone has a higher probability of being similar to the first person.

Volunteer sampling: This is a technique in which the respondents themselves finally volunteer to give information they hold.

Collection of data through questionnaire

For construction of a questionnaire it is important to understand five basic rules of questionnaire design:

1. Understand the goals of project so that only relevant questions are included.
2. Questions should be clear and unambiguous.
3. Questions must accurately communicate what is required from the respondents.
4. Don’t assume respondents understand the questions they are asked.

Types of questions: survey can consist of two basic types of questions:

1. Open-ended
2. Closed-ended

Open-ended question: It requires respondents to generate their own answers. It gives the respondents freedom in answering questions and an opportunity to provide in-depth responses.

Example:
Why do you watch Colors channel?
What type of TV program do you prefer to watch?
What would your favourite radio station change so that you would listen more often?

Advantages:

1. The researcher gets insight in respondent’s understanding.
2. Good to construct for complex issues when the total answer categories are very large (say, 20 or more)
3. Sometimes, the information and responses are so unexpected that the researcher’s ideas are completely changed.

Disadvantages:

1. Sometimes responses are irrelevant.
2. It is difficult to classify and code all responses.
3. As the data are not standardized, statistical analysis and computation of percentages become difficult.
4. Sometimes, responses are very lengthy and analysis of them is time consuming.
5. Semi-literate respondents find it difficult to answer open questions.
6. Open-ended questions may encounter a high refusal rate.

Closed-ended questions: Are the fixed choice-questions. They require the respondents to choose a response from a set of responses provided by the researcher.

Example:

Which of the following is most persuasive medium to disseminate information on Health Communication?

Interpersonal communication 
Newspaper/magazine/pamphlets
TV 
Radio 
Internet 
Books 
Other__________________

Advantages:
1. They provide a greater uniformity of responses.
2. The responses can be easily quantified.
3. Response rate is high particularly in sensitive questions like income, age and so on. If the answer in closed-ended question is a category, the respondent may easily identify himself with the range in which his income/age falls.

Some other types of questions:

Direct
Indirect
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Contingency
Filter

Direct: Direct questions are personal questions which elicit information about the respondent himself/herself.

Example: Do you believe in media censorship?

Indirect: Indirect questions seek information about other people.

Example: Do you think people of your status and age believe in media censorship?

Nominal: When its response falls in two or more categories.

Example: Rich/Poor, Married/Muslim, rural/urban, Shia/Suni and so on.

Ordinal: Questions in which responses are placed in rank and order of categories.

Example:

Smoking: regularly/occasionally/never
Relations with class mates: Excellent/satisfactory/dissatisfactory/can’t say

Interval: Questions which contain a range or interval.

Example:

Income per annum: Below 18,000/ 18,000-36,000/36,000-54,000/54,000-72,000/Above 72, 000.

Contingency: A contingency question is one whose relevance to the respondent is determined by his response to an earlier screening question.

Example:

Q1. Are you in favour of using some method in controlling birth?
Q2. Do you prefer vasectomy/condom/pill/safe period?

The second question is a contingency question.

The need for the contingency question arises because every question need not be relevant to all respondents. The use of contingency question can be reduced by drawing a homogeneous sample. The preferable format for contingency question would be as follows:

Q: Do you go to cinema houses for watching movies?

(a) Yes
(b) No

If yes, how often do you go? (a) once in a month; (b) once in a few months; (c) once or twice in a year.

Filter: These questions aim at eliciting information related to a general aspect of the research topics and are usually followed by more specific question.

Example:

Do you smoke?-Filter question.
Do you (being a girl) smoke?-Contingency question.

Dos and Don’ts of writing questions:

1. Questions should be clear: Sometimes which is perfectly clear to the researcher is not clear to the respondent.

Example: After finding out which radio station a respondent has been listening to more lately, the researcher might ask:

Why have you been listening to Radio Mirchi more lately?

And many be expecting to receive the response such as “I like the music a lot more.”

But the respondent might say: It’s the only station my radio can pick up.

The question would be much clearer to a respondent if asked in this form: Which radio station you enjoy listening to more lately as compared to a few months ago?

Making questions clear also requires:

• Avoiding difficult or specialized words, acronyms and so on.
• Avoiding double or hidden meanings in words.

Avoiding difficult or specialized words, acronyms and so on: Questions should be phrased in everyday speech and, and social science jargons and technical words should be eliminated. Example:

Do you believe demassification of audience is essential in the era of cut-throat competition?

The term ‘demassification’ may not be understood by the lay man. It has to be spelt out.

Avoiding double or hidden meanings in words: Questions should be written so they are fair to all types of respondents.

Example:

How many TV shows do you think are a little too violent---Most/some/few/none.

Some respondents who feel that all TV shows are extremely violent will answer ‘none’

The appropriate question might be:

How many TV shows, if any, do you think are too violent---Most/some/few/none.

2. Questions should be kept short: Respondents who are in a hurry are unlikely to take the time to fill a questionnaire with long questions.

3. Remember the purpose of research: It is important to include in a questionnaire only items that relate directly to what is being studied. For example:

If the occupational level of the respondent is not relevant to the purpose of the survey, the questionnaire should not ask about it.

4. Do not ask double-barreled questions: A double-barrel question is that question which asks two or more questions in the same sentence. Whenever the word ‘and’ appears in the question, the sentence should be re-examined to check if more than one question is being asked.

Example: India TV has programs which are funny and misleading. Do you agree or not?

A program may be funny buy may not be misleading. The question may be split into two parts.

5. Avoid biased words or terms:

Example: Where did you hear the news on President’s new economic policy?

The question is mildly biased against newspapers as the word ’hear’ suggests ‘radio’, ‘TV’ or ‘other people’ is a more appropriate answer.


6. Avoid leading questions: A leading question is one that suggests a certain response or contains a hidden meaning.

Example: Like most Indians, do you believe in God?

The question suggtests that the respondent should answer in affirmative or run the risk of being unlike most Indians.

7. Do not use questions that ask for highly detailed information:

Example: In the past 30 days, how many hours of TV have you viewed with your family?
This is unrealistic. Few respondents could answer it. A more realistic approach is to ask:

How many hours did you spend watching TV with your family yesterday?

8. Avoid potentially embarrassing questions unless they are absolutely necessary: An overly personal question may cause embarrassment and inhibit respondents from answering honestly—asking people’s income for example.

Example: What is your annual income?
The question can be put as: Which of the categories includes your household’s total annual income?

Rs. 25,000-Rs.40, 000; Rs. 40,000-Rs. 55,000; Rs. 55,000-Rs. 70, 000; Rs. 70,000-Rs. 85,000.

Format of the questionnaire/schedule:

Questionnaire/schedule format refers to the general model which provides guidelines on how the questions should be placed in a sequence and in a logical order of relationship to each other, what type of questions should be considered, how long the questionnaire/schedule should be, and how the questionnaire/schedule should be presented so that it is clear and easy to understand. The important aspects of questionnaire are given below:

1. Instruction
2. Questionnaire length:
3. Question order
4. Layout

Instruction: All instructions necessary to complete the questionnaire should be clearly stated for respondents or interviewers.

1. Mail questionnaire require the most specific instructions because respondents are not able to ask questions about the survey.
2. Respondents must understand whether the correct response consists of circling or ticking an item or placing items in a specific order.
3. Procedural instructions for respondents are often highlighted with a different typeface, capital letters, or some graphic device, perhaps arrows or lines. Example:

Do you have a favorite radio station that you listen to most of the time?
_________ Yes ________No

If yes, please briefly explain why on the lines below:

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

4. Some questionnaires require respondents to rank a list of items. In this case, the instructions must clearly describe which response represents the highest value.

Example: Please rate the following magazines is order or importance to you. Place a 1 next to the magazine you prefer most, a 2 next to the magazine in the second place, and so on up to 5.
__________ India Today
__________ The Outlook
__________ The Week
__________ The frontline
__________ The mainstream

5. Filter or screener questions are used to eliminate unwanted respondent or to include only respondents who have specific characteristics or who answer questions in a specific manner. Example:

In a typical week, do you listen to radio station on the AM dial?
_____Yes (Respond Q. 16)
_____No (Skip to Q. 17)

Questionnaire length: Long questionnaires cause fatigue and low completion rates. The length of a questionnaire depends on a variety of factors:
· What the researcher wants to know and how many items are necessary so that the data will be credible
· Type of study (Mailed questionnaires are shorter than face-to-face interviews)
· Type of problems or questions to be investigated
· Budget of the research
· Age of respondent (young people will be available for less time than middle-aged or old-people )

Question order:

· Researchers often include one or two preliminary or ‘warm up’ questions about the topic under investigation so respondents become accustomed to answering questions and begin thinking about the survey and.
· Preliminary questions should create interest in respondents.
· Personal questions, sensitive information, demographic data should be placed at the end of the questionnaire
· Some respondents may still refuse to answer personal items; at least the main body of data is already collected.
· Age and gender information are usually included in the first part of a questionnaire, so at least some respondent identification is possible.
· The questionnaire should be organized in a logical sequence, proceedings from general to the specific. Questions from similar topics should be grouped together, and the transitions between question sections should be clear and logical. Poor question order may bias a respondent’s answer. Example:

After several questions about the presence of violence in society, the respondent is asked to rank the major problems facing the community today from the following:
________ Naxalism
________ Corrupt Govt.
________ High prices
________Violence on TV
________War

The ‘Violence on TV’ might receive a higher rank than it would.

There is no easy solution to the problem of question ‘contaminatin’. Obviously some questions have to be asked before others. Perhaps the best approach of researchers is:

To be sensitive to the problem and check for it in the pretest
If they think question order A,B,C may have biasing effects, they should test another version using the order C,B,A.
Complete neutral ordering is not possible. In case of suspect of bias, the order of questions may be rotated.
Questionnaires with different question orders may be printed but make sure that the data are input and analyzed correctly.

Layout:

The physical design of the questionnaire is another important factor in survey research. A few points are worth noting:

1. A badly typed, poorly reproduced questionnaire is not likely to attract many responses in mail survey.
2. One should avoid cramped questionnaire say 40 questions to a page does not create a positive attitude towards it.
3. Response categories should be adequately spaced and presented in a non-confusing manner. For example:

There are too many commercials on TV.
Do you strongly agree______ Agree_____ Have no opinion_____ Disagree_____ Strongly disagree_____

The above format might lead to problems.

A more effective and less confusing method is to provide a vertical ordering of the response choices. Example:

There are too many commercials on TV.
__________ Strongly agree
__________Agree
__________ No opinion
__________ Disagree
__________ Strongly disagree

Sometimes respondents make large check marks or Xs that cover more than one blank, making interpretation difficult. If blanks are perceived as problems alternative methods (boxes, circling) should be employed. However, the response form should be consistent throughout.
Questions, specially the open-ended ones should have enough space for answers; else it is very discouraging to the respondents and will hamper the effectiveness of the survey.
Example
Why do you go to movies? __________________________________________.

The space given above is insufficient.

If the research budget limits the amount of the paper for questionnaires, respondents can be asked to add further comments on the back of the survey.

news report writing

1. Prepare a news report in about 150 words based on the information given below:
   
   Dateline: New Delhi, 17 January 2009.
   Facilities for the residents of the jhuggi-jhonpri clusters in the capital would be improved: Delhi Pradesh Congress Committee president J.P. Agarwal.
   He said it on Thursday.
   He said that people have always stood solidly beside the congress party and helped it come to power in Delhi for a third straight term.
   Mr. Agarwal assured the jhuggi dwellers that the Congress was against uprooting anyone and wanted to settle all the slum dwellers properly.
   Addressing a meeting organized by JJ Cell Chairperson Satya Sharma.
   The meeting was organized at Rajiv Bhawan, New Delhi.
   He said no more JJ clusters would be removed till the Government allotted specified plots or flats to them.
   Mr. Agarwal said the Delhi Govermnent had initiated several steps for resettlement of those living in JJ clusters.
   Steps include allotment of lower-priced flats of which about 4 lakh are being constructed.

News reporting

Write a report in about 150 words based on the information given below:

1. Delhi Police arrested four persons involved in a racket. They were making fake DL, PAN cards & voter I-cards.
2. Place & date of origin of story: New Delhi, 30th March 2007.
3. The police arrested them on March 29, 2007.
4. The police said they used to get vehicles financed on the basis of forged documents and later sell them to other gangs.
5. The four are: Daya Shankar, Budh Singh, Surjit Singh and Raj Kumar.
6. “We conducted raid and nabbed Daya Shanker, who tried to mislead us by saying he is Gaya Prashad. He even produced his driving licence to substantiate the claim. During the search, we recovered another driving licence in the name of Daya Shanker, one PAN card with the name of Rajesh Singh having the photograph of Daya Shanker, besides six more driving licences,” said DCP (crime and railways) Neeraj Thakur.
7. “He revealed that he was running a company in Azadpur. He confessed to having arranged personal loans for himself and his associates on the basis of forged documents,” Thakur added.

News report writing assignment

Write a one column news report in about 100 words based on the information given below:


1. Place: New Delhi. Date: 14th Jan 09.
2. On Jan. 8, police got a tip-off that a consignment of ganja was being transported to Gurgaon via IIT Gate.
3. The police laid a trap.
4. Intercepted the vehicle.
5. Four of its occupants were arrested after the consignment was seized from inside the vehicle.
6. On January 10, Upender Rajput was arrested with 25 kg of ganja and Lovlash Kumar was arrested in Saket with 22 kg of ganja.
7. The police claim to have seized over 200 kg of ganja.

Glossary of Reporting & Editing

Journalism is literature in a hurry. Speed is the most important element in news reporting. Speed determines your time to write report in full, check it for accuracy and rewrite it. Jargons become indispensable in such situations. So it may be useful to acquaint us with some of the jargons used in a newspaper office to know better what is being said. The terms in common usage are:

Ad: Advertisement.
Add: Copy to be added to a story already written.
Advance: A preliminary story concerning a future event.
Alive or live: A live story is one on which a reporter is working and that will be used.
A.M: Morning paper.
Angle: The aspect emphasized in a story.
Art: All newspaper illustrations.
Assignment: Reporter’s task.
Banner: A page-wide headline (also called ‘streamer’)
Barline: A one-line headline.
Beat: The reporter’s regular run e.g. Parliament, police etc.
Blind interview: Interview that does not give the name of the person interviewed.
Blurb: A preliminary paragraph set up distinctively to introduce a feature or news story.
Body: The main part of a news story after the lead. Sometimes called the development.
Body type: Small type in which most of the paper is set.
Boil: Boiling is more drastic than trimming. It implies close paring of all sentences and the sacrifice of minor facts. Length of the story s substantially reduced.
Box: An enclosure of line rules or borders.
Breaking news: Unexpected, unplanned occurrences, for example, a plane crash. A story that should be covered quickly and without any advance preparations.
By-line: The author’s name at the start of a story.
C. and L.C. or clc: capital and lowercase letters.
Canned copy: Publicity Material.
Caption/Cutline: Explanatory lines describing a picture or illustration, usually under the picture.
Dateline: Line at the beginning of the story that includes both date and place.
Deadline: The time all copy must be completed in order to make an edition.
Deck: Part of a multi-line headline.
Desk: Copy desk.
Double truck: Two adjoining pages made as one.
Dummy: Diagram of a page for use in making up a page.
Ear: Small box in the upper corner of the nameplate.
Edition: A specific version of one issue of a newspaper as “dak edition”, “city edition”, “late city edition”.
Editorialise: To include opinion of the writer in copy.
Embargo: A restriction, such as the precise date and time, placed on the release of news.
Filler: Short news or informational items used to fill small spaces in a page.
Flag: Name of paper appearing on first page.
Flash: A short message briefly summarizing a news event or the first information of any story.
Follow up: story giving later development of an event already written.
Follow copy: Instructions on copy to set story or word exactly as written, used often to indicate that word is purposely misspelled or that spelling is unorthodox.
Fotog: Short for photographer.
Fourth estate: The press, the term given by Edmund Burkee.
Future book: An editor’s calendar of future meetings, programs and news events that must be covered. Editors keep a future book as one means of managing the coverage of the news.
Head: Short for “headline”.
Headline schedule: All of the headline combinations used by a newspaper.
Hold for release: instructions to hold a copy until editor orders it printed.
Insert: Copy that is to be inserted in a story already sent to the compositor.
Jump: To continue a story from one page to another.
Jump head: Headline above a continued story.
Jump lines: Lines such as “continued on page 6” or “continued from page 1” to identify a continued story.
Human interest: An essential element of the news, recognition of the fact that people are interested in what other people do. Especially strong human-interests elements are love, children, success and misfortune, pets and animals.
Kill: To delete a story.
Layout: 1. Diagram of page showing where stories and ads are to be placed; 2. Arrangement of pictures on picture page.
L.C. or lc: Lowercase type.
Lead: The first paragraph of a news story also called “intro”.
Legman: A reporter who covers news but does not write it to save time for the job of reporting. The legman hands over the writing stuff to someone else. Legmen phone their stories in to the rewrite desk.
Library: Newspaper morgue or files or clippings, photographs, prepared obituaries, biographies, etc.
Localize: To localize the local angle in the story.
Log: City editor’s assignment book.
Make-over: Rearrangement of stories on page to provide for new copy or to change the position of stories.
Makeup: Arrangement stories, pictures, ads, etc., on a page.
More: Used at end of a page of copy to indicate story is continued on another page.
Must: Instructions that the story must be used on that day without fail.
Newsprint: A soft paper made from wood pulp and used in printing newspapers.
News peg: The significant or interesting point on which a reporter hangs a story.
News hole: The number of columns of space available for news in a newspaper. The space not devoted to advertising.
Obit: Obituary.
Op-Ed: Page opposite the editorial page featuring comment, cartoons and other editorial matter.
Ombudsman: A reader’s representative who serves as a short of middleman between the newspaper staff and the public.
P.M: Afternoon paper.
Page brightener: Light and generally humorous features, mostly short, that lighten and brighten the news.
Pica: A printer’s measurement. One Pica is one-sixth of an inch.
Point: A printer’s measurement. Type size—the heights of the face of a letter—is measured in points. There are 72 points to the inch. A 36-point typeface—display or headline type—is half and inch in height.
Policy story: A story directly or indirectly showing the newspaper’s stand on an issue.
Proof: An outline of set type used in correcting errors.
Proof-reader: Person who reads proof to correct errors.
Query: Questions on an event sent by a correspondent to a paper or by a paper to a correspondent.
Queue: Order of priority in scheduling; each schedule is known as “queue”.
Quote: Quotation.
Release: Instructions on the time to publish a story, as “release after 3 pm Feb.6.”
Run: A press run (edition).
Run over: Part of a story that is continued on another page.
Sacred cow: News or promotional material that the publisher or editor demands to be printed in a special manner.
Schedule: List of assignments.
Scoop: An exclusive story.
Slant: Emphasis or bias. The direction given to a story. A story directed to a certain segment of a newspaper’s readership is said to be slanted for those readers. For example, a story may be slanted to teen-age readers.
Slot man: Copy desk chief.
Slug: A one-word or two-word identification for a news story, typed at the top of each page of the story.
Squib: A brief story.
Stet: To restore text of copy that has been marked out.
String: Newspaper clippings pasted together.
Subhead: Small, one-line headline.
Suspended interest: A type of news story in which the main point or outcome is withheld until the end of the story rather than being summarised at the beginning.
Spot news: Breaking news.
Stringer: Someone who reports or writes for a newspaper on a production basis, that is, paid for what is published rather than as a full, time, salaried staff member.
Style: Conventions or accepted usage regarding punctuation, capitalisation, abbreviations, use of names and titles and other features of written language.
Stylebook: A written guide to newspaper or wire services preferences in matters of style.
Take: A section of a running story.
Thirty: The end of a story. Numeral usually used. Write thirty or 30.
Tie-back: That part of the story which gives past events to remind the readers or to give background for the latest developments.
Trim: Reduce length of a story.
U.C. and L.C: Uppercase and lowercase type.
Wire: Press associations, the UNI, the PTI etc. Wire copy is the copy supplied by the press associations.
Yellow Journalism: A term used to describe vulgar, unpleasant and sensational news coverage. Practiced in early 1900s in America. Journalism that exploits, distorts, exaggerates and sensationalizes.
***************

Important Terms in Advertising

1. Above-the-line cost: A budgeted expenses in television production (e.g., producers, directors, cast, script etc.).
2. Account: A general term for the business relationship existing between an advertising agency and its clients. A client of an advertising agency.
3. Account conflict: The opposing interests that occur when an advertising agency accepts competing clients.
4. Account executive: An executive responsible co-coordinating an account.
5. AD: Art director or Assistant director.
6. Ad: Advertisement.
7. Ad copy: The portions of an advertisement, commercial, or promotional piece.
8. Adman: A person working in the advertising industry.
9. Below the line cost: Cost that is not included in above-the-line items (e.g. props, transportation, set construction etc.)
10. Brand: A graphic symbol, trade name, or combination of both that distinguishes a product or service of one seller from those of others.
11. Brand name: A word or group of words, usually trademarked, that identify a product or service.
12. Brand image: The pattern of feelings, associations, and ideas held by the public generally in regard to a specific brand. It is also called Brand Personality.
13. Promotion: An effort, usually temporary, to create interests in the purchase of a product or service by offering extra values; includes temporary discounts, allowances, premium offers, coupons, contests etc.
14. Positioning: It is strategic placement of products, ideas, services in the market to create a distinct brand image in the same segment.
15. Segment: A market segment consists of a group of customers who share a similar set of wants.

Example: A car company might say that it would target young, middle-income car buyers. The problem is that the young, middle-income buyers will differ about what they want in a car. Some will want a low-cost car and others will want an expensive car. Young, middle-income car buyers is a sector. Young, middle –income car buyers who want a low-cost car is a segment.
16. Sponsor: Generally, an advertiser that pays for broadcast time. An advertiser that purchases an entire program.
17. Sponsored program: A TV or Radio program paid for by one or more advertisers, as opposed to a sustaining program.
18. Sustaining program: A TV or radio program supported by a commercial station or networks, without sponsorship by an advertiser, usually scheduled in the public interests.
19. Target Market: A target market is the market segment to which a particular product is marketed.
20. Marketing: The business activities that affect the distribution and sales of goods and services from producer to consumer; including product or service development, pricing, packaging, advertising, merchandising, and distribution.
21. Brand loyalty: The consistent purchase and use of a specific product by a consumer over a period of time.
22. USP: The original and unique benefit claimed for an advertised product or service.
23. Slogan: A sentence or phrase used consistently in advertising to identify an advertiser’s product or services.
24. Logo: A brand name, publication title, or the like, presented in a special lettering style or typeface and used in the name of a trademark.
25. Propaganda: A communication intended to influence, belief and action, whether true or false information is contained in such communication. Ex: Every God-fearing/God-believing person should support us to free the J&K from the oppressions of the Govt. of India.
26. Publicity: Information regarding a person, corporation, product etc. released for non-paid use by the mass media; often disguised as news.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Advertising

Abraham (Harold) Maslow (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. He is mostly noted today for his proposal of a hierarchy of human needs and is considered the father of humanistic psychology.

Maslow postulated that needs are arranged in a hierarchy in terms of their potency. The lower the need is in the pyramid, the more powerful it is. The higher the need is in the pyramid, the weaker it is.

1. Physiological needs: The base of the pyramid is formed by the physiological needs.
The physiological needs of the organism take first precedence. These consist mainly of:

Excretion
Eating
Sex
Drinking
Sleeping
Shelter
Warmth

If some needs are not fulfilled, a human's physiological needs take the highest priority. Physiological needs can control thoughts and behaviors, and can cause people to feel sickness, pain, and discomfort.


2. Safety Needs: With his physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take over and dominate his behavior. These needs have to do with man's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as:

Personal security from crime
Security against company lay-offs
Health and well-being
Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

3. Love/Belonging/Social needs:
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:

friendship
sexual intimacy
having a supportive and communicative Family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group (such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs) or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others.

4. Esteem needs: All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to respect others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem, inferiority complexes.

5. Cognitive needs: Maslow believed that humans have the need to increase their intelligence and thereby chase knowledge. Cognitive needs is the expression of the natural human need to learn, explore, discover and create to get a better understanding of the world around them.

6. Aesthetic needs: Based on Maslow's beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that humans need beautiful imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to continue up towards Self-Actualization. Humans need to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer.

7. Self-actualization: Is the instinctual need of humans to make the most of their abilities and to strive to be the best they can.

In Maslow's scheme, the final stage of psychological development comes when the individual feels assured that his physiological, security, affiliation and affection, self-respect, and recognition needs have been satisfied. As these become dormant, he becomes filled with a desire to realize all of his potential for being an:
Effective
Creative
Mature human being

8. Transcendence: Maslow also proposed that people who have reached self-actualization will sometimes experience a state he referred to as "transcendence," in which they become aware of not only their own fullest potential, but the fullest potential of human beings at large.


Products/Services/Ideas Vs Needs

1. Biological and Physiological needs - Food and drink adverts, selling houses or mortgages.

2. Safety needs - home security products (alarms, etc), adverts for insurance, home loans and bank or building society adverts.

3. Belongingness and Love needs - dating and match-making services, chat-lines, clubs and membership societies, life-style choices – diet, fashion. Advertisements relating to caring for others such as small children or pets.

4. Esteem needs - Need for attention – beauty products which will make you admired. Cosmetics, fast cars, home improvements, furniture, fashion clothes, drinks, lifestyle products and services. Adverts linked to winning or achievements – often promoted by sports personalities

5. Cognitive needs: Advertisements by travel operators etc.

6. Aesthetic needs: The advertisements relating to the sale of paintings, art, sculpture.

7. Self-Actualization needs - Adverts for expensive furnishings, posh ornaments, Open University, foreign travel sometimes offer the opportunity to find meaning to life. Fast car adverts offer the possibility of control and being the envy of others.

8. Transcendence needs: Advertisements to explore hidden energy and talent. To join different religious groups etc.

Single product targeting multiple products

A product can be advertised to fulfill multiple needs of Maslow’s pyramid. It’s to the discretion of the copy writer/manufacturer to target which type of need of the target buyers.

Example: Clothes.

Image & Opinion Research in PR

Public Relations Research serves the following three functions:

1. It confirms assumptions and intuitive feelings about the state of public opinion on an issue, or a company.
2. It clarifies questions on which limited information is available, or on which apparently contradictory data are to be found. Research can help sort out what people really mean and when they say they like or dislike an organization--- the reasons they cite for these feelings, and even the origin of the feelings.
3. It re-orients our thinking on public relations problems. It helps us to define and focus on our objectives and target group, and in assigning priorities to Public Relations problems and Public Relations actions.

Image Research: Large-scale corporate image studies among different target audiences. Image research determines the institutional profile of the public toward an organization, how well they understand it, and what they like and dislike about it. It seeks to understand how well the company is known, its reputation, and what the public thinks about its products, services, prices, advertising, personnel, and practices.

Attitude and Attitude Research: Attitudes are the feelings or moods of a person for or against some person, organization, issue, or object. They represent the predisposition of an individual to evaluate controversial questions in a favourable or unfavourable manner. Simply stated, an attitude is a way of looking at situations. An expressed attitude is an opinion.

Change in attitude may occur under various conditions e.g. the existing attitude no longer provides us the satisfaction or if our aspirations get raised. Changes in attitude can be brought about by through communications by creating new beliefs, or by appealing to the emotions to arouse favourable or unfavourable attitudes. Appeals to the physical, social and economic needs of people are considered to be effective in changing their attitude e.g. the ads for insuring life, property etc., have considerable acceptance and response by general public.

Attitude research seeks to discover what shapes the public attitude toward an organization. To understand the motives which influence an individual's opinion, it is necessary to explore the psychological factors which shape his attitudes toward a company.

A company's public image may be affected not only by its own policies and actions, but also by the attitude of the public toward the industry of which the company is a part.

Techniques available for research:

There are number of techniques available for conducting public opinion research. A few of them are mentioned below:

Content Analysis: A very old and still useful method is to carry out a content analysis of how a topic or an organization or a problem is treated in the press, textbooks, radio, or television. Such research gives a pretty fair measure of the saliency of the problem and often useful hints as to which aspects of it seem to be arousing greatest public interest.

Several points must be observed with respect to content analysis studies-- what weights, if any, should be assigned to the length of converge, position on the page, the page number itself, and so on.

Opinion Survey: Public opinion surveys and their various techniques, each of which has its merits and its limitations. Properly used, these different techniques can complement one another and produce a mosaic of data giving new insights into longstanding problems.

Depth Survey: This is nothing more than an effort to let the public tell the researcher, in its own words, how it views a company, a public issue, or a particular individual. In these surveys the researcher carefully avoids imposing his point of view on the respondent. Depth studies are useful in the earlier stages of programme in giving clues to the perimeters of a problem.

Good research takes time. And if undertaken must not be unnecessarily hurried, even if the findings are required in a hurry. It must take its own course with all the procedures completed fully and the analysis of data done properly to throw up the required leads to evolve the Public Relations strategy and programme.

How to use the tools?

It is not realistic to expect formal research studies to be part and parcel of the everyday routine in a department or counseling firm. There is simply not enough money to support such studies. But they can be helpful tools when employed at the right time by practitioners who make reasonable demands on them.

Good research takes time-- management often needs answers in a hurry. Management frequently feels it must have research results immediately if they are to be of any value in planning action programs. But a good research requires a reasonable time to organize, pre-test, execute, analyse, and write up.

Public relations problems are frequently elusive and may occasionally defy systematic research study. There is still plenty of room for the educated, intuitive guess in situations where events are moving fast, and there are critical variables influencing these events.

Evaluating research:

There are no clear-cut criteria by which management may evaluate the worth of a public relations research study. The boss cannot know whether a particular study meets the needs until there has been a chance to translate some the findings into action. In fact, initial reactions to a research study may change-- growing more or less favourable as the relevance of the findings is tested out in day-to-day operations.

Evaluation of research study is a complicated business. It would be very wrong to assume that top management has the training or resources for translating research findings into public relations programs. It is likely that a particular piece of research was bad when, in fact, his real problem was that he did not have the staff or the personal ability to translate research findings into successful programs.

Public relations research often deals with those frail and invisible entities--attitudes and information. Such data are by their very nature intangible and far more elusive than, for example, findings from advertising research studies whose data can be validated by comparison with subsequent sales figures, share of market data and so on.

New directions:

In the past, corporate public relations research programs concentrated their time and money on reaching certain predictable audiences thought to be of greatest importance to the corporation-- shareholder, employees and their families, customers, key government officials, the financial community, and other opinion leaders

But political and social forces that emerged in the late Sixties and early Seventies have changed this simple and safe way of categorizing the corporation's critical publics; and these forces, in turn, have redefined the focus of public relations research. Three massive social and political movements had profound impact on the corporate world and appeared for the first time on the agenda in board room where policy is shaped. These are:

a. A concern with protecting and improving our physical environment.
b. Consumerism (including concern about protecting investors)
c. Demands for upgrading the career opportunities for women and disadvantaged ethnic and racial groups.

These political ad social movements, and the resulting legislation that they generated, caused corporate public relations programs to become more "issue" oriented and less "public" oriented.

Today, PR researchers recognize that criteria previously thought to be sound for studying their publics-- place of residence, level of education and income, sex, and race--are no longer reliable indicators of an individual's lifestyle and his or her social and political, intellectual, and emotional orientation.

Example: In the areas of attitudes on environmental issues, the long-haired activist on a college campus may well agree with a conservative village housewife in campaigns to protect the environment and prevent companies from building new plants and facilities in a particular community.

The lebels 'politically conservative', 'liberal', 'right wing', 'leftist' no longer belong to a particular sub-groups in our population. And this complicates enormously the job of the public relations researcher in trying to identify key target groups whose attitudes might affect well-being of his or her organization.

Perhaps the single greatest challenge facing public relations researchers today is devising better early -warning networks help identify the still small and inarticulate public-interest movements that may one day impact on the company's future well-being.

Some companies are employing an in-house early-warning network to gather data on public attitudes towards them. They are looking to the observations and experiences of key employees as a source of their information. These employees often provide timely early warnings regarding new problems on public relations issues that are only beginning to yeast in the publics' mind.

Conclusion: The focus of public relations research has been changing from the study of traditional publics to a greater attention to the study of "issues' and how best to modify public attitudes on them.

PR Campaign

PR Campaign: An organized effort to accomplish a purpose e.g. build / change the opinion of a group or groups on a subject.

PR campaigns are of two types:

Pro-active
Reactive

Pro-active: Devising a program, implementing it, and achieving certain results or benefits to the organization in normal conditions.

Reactive: Devising a program, implementing it, and achieving certain results or benefits to the organization in unfavorable situations.

Different steps in a PR campaign:

Analysis of the situation
Need assessment and setting objectives
Identification of public
PR message design
Media selection
Budgeting in the PR
Implementation of the PR program
Evaluation
Monitoring and Midcourse correction

Analysis of the situation:

A good understanding of the company itself and of its related public is a must and most useful to determine how the target publics view the organization.

This could be done either formally through a proper market survey, or informally by questioning key people associated with the various target public of the organisaion. Techniques like "SWOT" analysis can be pressed for action to analyse a situation.

Need assessment and setting objectives:

In all PR planning, whether for government or private organization, a firm, a company or an association, determining the organizational needs, and setting objectives becomes a primary function. But how to do it?

Look at the competition, dig the material available in your files or at the library--in magazines, government reports, trade association material. Talk to people inside and outside the organization.

PR objectives represent the specific knowledge, opinion, and behavioral outcomes to be achieved for each well-defined target public, what some call "key results". In practice, the objectives do the following:

Give focus and direction for developing program strategies and tactics.
Provide guidance and motivation to those implementing the program.
Spell out the criteria for monitoring progress and for assessing impact.

If possible, the objectives should be written down in a statement, simply and clearly, so that these are easily understood by all, and could be the yardsticks to measure the achievements short-term and long-term.

Example:

The PR objectives of an NGO working to spread awareness on the negative effects of plastic use might be:

To begin to provide the public with regularly scheduled advertisements about the danger of burning plastic in open air and its associated diseases like cancer, disabled child etc.
To personally contact once in 3 months all media representatives (press meet) in order to inform the health hazards and to seek their cooperation for highlighting the issues.

Identification of public:

In a PR campaign it is important that we define our target publics carefully and then choose the strategy and media to reach them effectively. There are certain basic publics for any broad PR programme:

The community:
Opinion leaders: People who command influence.
The media-- The press, TV, radio, etc.
The employees.
The potential employees: people who work for rival organizations.
The suppliers.
The customers.
The traders: distributors, wholesalers, agents, etc.
The financial contacts--bankers, shareholders, investors, insurers etc.

This list is a basic list, but, for any one organization, there will always be a special list of all the groups of people with whom the organization does or should communicate.


PR message design:

For achieving the desired result, the message should be developed properly and clearly. The appropriate message will have the following three attributes:

1) Clear
2) Correct and
3) Concise

Clear:

The message is free from ambiguity and it is necessary to ensure that slang phrases / usage are avoided and also the message should be free from perceptional distortion problems. As far as possible, one should use simple language, simple style, appropriate words and right tone.

Correct:

The credibility of the message is based on the credibility of the source and also the correctness of the content. It is essential to ensure that the information provided (message) is true, to unbiased and there is a source to verify it. It is essential to avoid content based on rumors, hearsay as well as source of no origin.

Concise:

Since message dissemination involves time and effort for transmitting as well as receiving or absorbing. Hence message should be crisp enough to give information and at the same time not occupying more time of the receivers valuable time. The content should revolve around the core element of the message; frills and verbose / ornamental language need to be avoided.

The effectiveness of the message depends upon the above three attributes and if even component is missing or negative, the result will also be negative or not as per the expectations.

Some Specific Guidelines:

Practitioners and executives alike can profit by closely studying these guidelines developed by an experienced counselor, Chester Burger:

1. Talk from the viewpoint of the public's interest, not the organization's.
Example: The soft drink bottler who launches a campaign to collect and recycle bottles can frankly admit that it does not want to irritate the public by having its product litter the landscape.

2. Speak in personal terms whenever possible.

However when many people have worked in developing a new product or adopting a new policy, it becomes difficult for the executive to say "I."

3. If you do not want some statement quoted, do not make it. Spokespersons should avoid talking "off the record," because such statements may well wind up published without the source.
4. State the most important fact at the beginning. The executive's format may first list the facts that led to the final conclusion, but such organization will fail when talking with the news media.

5. Do not argue with the reporter or lose your cool. Understand that the journalist seeks an interesting story and will use whatever techniques necessary to obtain it.

6. If a question contains offensive language or simply words you do not like, do not repeat them even to deny them. Reporters often use the gambit of putting words into the subject's mouth.

7. If the reporter asks a direct question, give an equally direct answer. Not giving one is a common error executives are prone to make.

8. If a spokesperson does not know the answer to a question, one should simply say, "I don't know, but I'll find out for you." With this, the spokesperson assumes the responsibility of following through.

9. Tell the truth, even if it hurts. In this era of skepticism and hostility, the most difficult task is often simply telling the truth.

10. Do not exaggerate the facts. Crying wolf makes it harder to be heard next time out.

These guidelines simply add up to the rule that profitable press relations require adherence to the "Five Fs": dealing with journalists that is fast, factual, frank, fair and friendly.

Media selection:

The media selection means using the media according to the objectives needed to support the campaign. The question is whether one should use the existing media such as the Press, TV, or media such as the non-conventional ones.

The correct media selection saves time, money and effort, and helps in designing messages for special groups or audiences. Each medium has its own strengths and weaknesses. The media could also be selected so that they complement and reinforce one another. In any campaign not all the media are used at the same stage. The media selection and decisions regarding the media mix are crucial components in the planning of PR strategy, and must be carefully selected to maximize its reach to the target publics to communicate the message.

Media used in the PR are generally the same as in other communications, like advertising. Most common among these is the Press. In view of this, the objective of the PR programme or campaign should be to determine the exact media mix.

Budgeting in the PR:

Budgeting is an essential part of planning in the PR. Budgeting requires setting of priorties, and places tremendous importance on being cost-effective. Ineffective activities are quickly weeded out with well planned budgeting. Budgeting requires advanced planning, which immediately involves detailing of all steps, phases, and timing of activities.

The main division or parts of a PR department are:

Salaries of the PR staff, preferably broken down into man-hours, so you know how much work is involved.
Overheads, office expenses and costs.
Transport, car and travel expenses.
Stationery and postage expenses.
Printing, photography and other production costs.
The media costs.
Other costs: equipments hiring, conference rooms, hospitality etc.

It goes without saying that for these expenses proper accounting procedures have to be followed. Records should be kept of all expenditure and payments. Charges should be fair and reasonable, made known or estimated in advance, so that there would be no reason for over expenditure or cost over runs.

Two basic and vital factors in budgeting, besides the departmental expenses, are the objectives of the programme campaign and the target group to be reached. This then determines the task for the organization in achieving objectives and the media to be employed. Clarity on both these areas helps the PR person t budget the programme clearly within the required time frame. Time frame is important in the budget evolution activity. The longer the period, the larger the budget required.

Hence, the departmental expenses (organizational structure), the objectives to be achieved, the task involved, the media to be used, and the period (duration) of the programme, all go to make up the PR budget. These are interlinked, and require to be given necessary attention.

Implementation of the PR program:

The best conceived plans could be fouled up by the lack of involvement and effort of the personnel, like poor handling of funds, insufficient attention to details, etc. Efforts should be made to ensure that there are no lapses at any stage.

Continuous monitoring of how the plan is being executed has several benefits. Feedback provided could be used to make necessary changes and to enhance the chances of the plan being successful. This will also avoid unnecessary wastage. If the feedback shows certain aspects of the plan are going very well and the success needs to be exploited, then even more money could be assigned to this part of the campaign.

Three qualities have the functional value in the implementation of a good PR plan:

Flexibility
Timing
Appropriateness

Flexibility in the implementation of the plan is important as adjustments could be made for the unexpected events.

Timing is important so that the plan could avoid competing with other high-publicity programmes and also fit in the mood of the situation.

Plans should also be appropriate in as many ways as possible from the point of view of the funds provided, the prevailing image, and goals of the organization.

Evaluation:

Evaluation is an integral part of the PR planning process and is necessary to analyse all campaigns so that, the short comings as well as the successes of each campaign could be identified and studied. Evaluation must be built into the campaigns from the initial stage to draw upon whatever lessons that could be learnt from actual experience. Final results should be compared with that of the anticipated levels.

Evaluation could be undertaken at different levels. At the simplest level, evaluation process could take the form of finding answers to basic questions, like:

How did the campaign go?
Did we put in sufficient effort?
If we had to do the same campaign again, what would we do differently?

Evaluation seeks systematic answers to these and similar questions through research in terms of the impact, effect, and outcome as a result of the PR activity or programme.

A decision has to be made as to which type of the evaluation should be used for a particular campaign i.e. summative or formative research etc.

The summative research evaluates events that are past or that have been completed.

Formative research assesses the events while it is in progress, and feeds back its results into the on-going campaign.

Summative research should be undertaken when there is a need for more accuracy rather than timely results, or when results needed should be more universally applicable. Formative research is useful as a way to reducing uncertainty in new communication situations in which previous experiences generally is not available as a guide.

In broad terms, the evaluation criteria for the PR fall in the following terms:

Publicity--- column centimeters of write-up received in the Press/time in the electronic media.
Reader interest/recall--through formal research of interviews and questionnaire type.
Readability--Used to assess message preparation objectively. It takes into account the approximate ease with which printed materials can be read and comprehended.
Unobtrusive indicators-- ranging from replies, coupons to feedback provided by internal staff who have contact with the public.

Since evaluation is almost always (and must be) research-based, an evaluation exercise would seldom rely on any one single method. Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses. Some methods are more suitable for certain purposes and data might also be more or less assessable to different methods. Another important criterion is cost effectiveness. The common research methods used in the PR are:

Observation: Example-press coverage.
Interviews: With people on how they feel, what they think, and what they perceive and why?
Questionnaire: Administered in person, or by mail, or coupons in advertisements and literature.
Experimental tests: testing different campaign variations or activities in different market areas, something like test marketing.
Measuring event behaviour or action: Visible differences or shift after the PR event or activity (bench mark studies).

Monitoring and Midcourse correction:

Monitoring of the programme or campaign during the course of its implementation is as important as pre-and post programme or campaign. One might not use specific research techniques, though one could do so. It is crucial that a watch is maintainied on how the elements of the programme being implemented are making the desired impact.

If the impact is weak or undesirable or excessive, the PR person needs to take corrective action. This could be in the form of a change in the media, the message, the frequency, or even the timing. One could slow down or hasten the PR programme, or stop it altogether, if the situation do demands. It all depends on what and how the objectives were to be achieved and with what impact. Things might sometimes go wrong, but we must be prepared and ready to change the course or our action, even mid-way, if required. Post-programme evaluation is always possible, but the effect would have already been felt, and the money spent. Being constantly involved and watchful even as the PR campaign is underway is an important requirement at the corporate PR department level.